At The Body Image Treatment Clinic, I see first-hand the distress that body image issues cause. From relentless comparison to deep self-criticism, many of my clients feel trapped in a cycle of dissatisfaction. Since COVID-19, the evolution of negative body image has worsened.

While individual factors certainly play a role, have you ever wondered if there’s something deeper at play in our society that’s fuelling this widespread dissatisfaction?

I believe there is. By looking through the lens of evolutionary psychology, specifically the work of Professor Robin Dunbar and Professor Paul Gilbert, there is a compelling argument for why our modern, increasingly individualistic world might be contributing to this epidemic of body image distress.

The Evolutionary Roots of Social Connection

Imagine our ancestors living in small, cohesive hunter-gatherer groups. Survival depended on cooperation, mutual support, and a deep understanding of each other. As a result, this is the environment our brains evolved in, and it profoundly shaped our social capacities. Enter Professor Robin Dunbar, an evolutionary psychologist renowned for his research on social networks. His most famous contribution, Dunbar’s Number, suggests that our brains are cognitively limited to maintaining stable, meaningful relationships with approximately 150 individuals. This isn’t just a casual acquaintance number; it represents the maximum number of people with whom we can maintain genuine, reciprocal social connections – knowing who they are, their relationship to others, and having a shared sense of trust and understanding.

Crucially, Dunbar’s research also points to nested social layers within this larger group. These layers represent different levels of intimacy and frequency of interaction:

• The Support Group (approx. 5 individuals): Your closest confidantes, often family or best friends, whom you rely on for significant emotional and practical support.
• The Sympathy Group (approx. 15 individuals): Good friends you see regularly and share deeper personal connections with.
• The Clan/Band (approx. 50 individuals): Friends you interact with less frequently but still consider part of your core social circle.
• Dunbar’s Number (approx. 150 individuals): The largest group with whom you can maintain stable, meaningful relationships.

In these ancestral groups, an individual’s worth was multifaceted and deeply intertwined with their contribution to the collective within these intimate layers. Your value was affirmed by your role in the tribe, your skills, your character, and the genuine bonds you shared. Self-esteem was intrinsically linked to belonging and contribution, not primarily to external appearance. The constant “social grooming” – in the broadest sense, including conversation, shared experiences, and mutual support – reinforced these bonds and affirmed each person’s place.

 

The Shift to Individualism and the Erosion of Our Social Safety Net

Fast forward to today. We live in vastly larger, often anonymous, societies. While social media might give us thousands of “friends” or “followers,” the depth of these connections rarely approaches the quality of the relationships envisioned by Dunbar’s Number, let alone its inner, more intimate layers. We’re exposed to an overwhelming flood of faces and lifestyles, far exceeding our cognitive capacity to form authentic bonds.

The impact of our expanded social world, urbanisation, mobility and reduced extended family structures has been huge. Unfortunately, it has led to a significant weakening of community ties. Many people experience a profound sense of isolation, lacking the embeddedness in a stable, supportive social fabric that was once a given.

Simultaneously, modern Western societies have placed an escalating emphasis on individualism. We are encouraged to be self-reliant, to strive for personal achievement, and to define success through individual metrics: wealth, career, and, crucially, appearance. In the past, we would be comparing ourselves to a small group of individuals in our tribe, village or locality over a range of factors; now, with globalisation, we are comparing a much more limited range of factors to the most aspirational out of 8 billion people.

How the Pandemic Amplified Body Image Issues

The COVID-19 pandemic, though a singular event, dramatically illustrated the very mechanisms I’m discussing. For many, lockdowns and social distancing measures led to unprecedented levels of reduced in-person social connection, effectively shrinking their real-world “Dunbar layers” overnight. Simultaneously, time spent on social media platforms skyrocketed as people sought alternative forms of connection and entertainment.

This shift created a perfect storm for body image issues:

• Loss of Real-World Affirmation: With fewer opportunities for genuine interactions with friends, family, and colleagues, the everyday affirmations and sense of belonging derived from these relationships were significantly curtailed. The “social grooming” that reinforces self-worth is diminished.
• Intensified Digital Comparison: The vacuum left by reduced real-world connection was often filled by increased exposure to highly curated, often filtered or digitally enhanced, online content. This intensified social comparison makes the pursuit of an “ideal” appearance feel even more urgent and unattainable.
• Internal Focus on the Body: Confined to homes, many individuals reported an increased focus on their bodies, often exacerbated by a lack of routine, changes in eating habits, or reduced physical activity. This internal focus, combined with external online pressures, created a breeding ground for dissatisfaction.

My clinical experience at The Body Image Treatment Clinic during and after the pandemic directly reflects this. I observed a significant increase in clients presenting with exacerbated body image distress. Additionally, I saw increased eating disorder symptoms, often directly correlating with their reduced social interaction and heightened social media engagement during that period.

Why the Evolution of Society Makes Us Fixate on Appearance

When the deep well of communal affirmation and belonging dries up, where do we seek validation? This is where the connection to body image becomes stark.

Professor Paul Gilbert, the founder of Compassion Focused Therapy (CFT), highlights our evolved drive for social comparison and the importance of feeling safe and connected. Gilbert’s work on our “three affect regulation systems” is crucial here:

1. Threat System: Activated by perceived dangers (physical or social), leading to anxiety, anger, and feelings of inadequacy.
2. Drive System: Activated when pursuing resources or goals, leading to excitement and a sense of achievement.
3. Safeness/Soothing System: Activated by feelings of connection, warmth, and compassion, leading to contentment and security.

In a healthy, connected environment, our Safeness/Soothing System is frequently activated through genuine, reciprocal relationships within our Dunbar layers. This provides a fundamental sense of security and worth.

However, in an increasingly individualistic and fragmented society:

• Loss of Intrinsic Worth: Without the constant, organic affirmation from a close-knit community, an individual’s sense of inherent worth can become fragile. If “who you are” within a supportive group is less defined, the external “how you look” can tragically become a primary, and often desperate, avenue for seeking validation.
• Amplified Social Comparison: Our innate drive for social comparison, once a tool for navigating small tribal hierarchies, becomes distorted. Instead of comparing ourselves to a manageable group where our value is known and accepted, we are bombarded by a relentless stream of highly curated, often digitally manipulated, idealized images from media and online platforms. These are standards that are often unattainable and profoundly unrealistic. This constant comparison can over-activate our Threat System, leading to chronic feelings of inadequacy and self-criticism.
• The Body as a Proxy for Value: When genuine connection and belonging are scarce, the body becomes a hyper-visible canvas on which we try to project worth. If we feel unaccepted or invisible in our authentic selves, we might unconsciously believe that achieving a certain body ideal will unlock the social acceptance and belonging we crave. This pursuit taps into our Drive System, promising excitement and achievement, but often delivers only temporary relief before the next “flaw” is identified.
• Increased Self-Criticism and Shame: As Professor Gilbert’s work on self-criticism suggests, when we feel threatened or lacking (especially in the social domain), our threat system activates. In the absence of soothing from genuine connection, this can manifest as harsh self-criticism and shame about our bodies. We internalize the societal pressure to conform, viewing our bodies as objects to be judged, rather than as integral parts of a healthy, functioning self.

How Body Image Evolution Plays Out by Gender

This phenomenon manifests differently for different genders, often driven by evolutionary preferences and contemporary societal pressures:

Young Men and the Rise of “Lookmaxxing”

Traditionally, male self-esteem has often been strongly tied to external markers of achievement: career success, financial wealth, social status, and physical strength/competence (e.g., in sports or manual labour). However, in many modern societies, particularly for younger generations, these traditional avenues of male attainment can feel increasingly out of reach. Precarious job markets, rising living costs, and a general sense of economic uncertainty can make it difficult for young men to generate self-esteem from these areas.

In this vacuum, physical appearance becomes an accessible and seemingly controllable area for validation. This fuels trends like “lookmaxxing,” where young men meticulously optimise their physical appearance, often through extreme measures. This can involve:

• “Softmaxxing”: Focusing on diet, exercise (often to achieve unrealistic muscularity), grooming, and skincare.
• “Hardmaxxing”: Exploring more invasive procedures. This can include jawline enhancements (“mewing”), hair transplants, or even cosmetic surgery, driven by the belief that these will significantly improve their “attractiveness” and social standing.

While a desire to look good is natural, the “lookmaxxing” subculture often fosters an obsessive, critical, and often toxic environment. It transforms appearance into a competitive arena, with constant self-comparison and the belief that one’s worth ties directly to their “sexual market value.” This can be a desperate attempt to gain a sense of agency and esteem when other traditional pathways feel blocked.

Women and the Pursuit of the Aesthetic

For women, while the pressures have long been present, the current era of individualism and social media has amplified them to an unprecedented degree. Evolutionary psychology suggests that female attractiveness signals fertility and health. However, modern beauty standards have become hyper-specific and often contradictory, making “perfection” an impossible moving target.

Many girls learn early that their worth links directly to their appearance. They receive these messages long before they can question them. Media, toys, and even well-meaning adults reinforce this idea. Girls are often taught to value being “pretty,” “thin,” or “well-dressed.”

Role models in entertainment and advertising consistently present women whose success and happiness seem inextricably linked to their physical appeal. Children often internalise the link between appearance and worth before they can think critically. Consequently, these beliefs become deeply ingrained and hard to unlearn.

The “aesthetic” trend, particularly prevalent on platforms like Instagram and TikTok, pushes a highly curated, often digitally enhanced, ideal. This manifests as:

• Unrealistic Body Ideals: From extreme thinness to specific hourglass figures, often achieved through filters, clever posing, or cosmetic procedures.
• Flawless Skin and Facial Symmetry: The “Instagram Face” features plump lips, high cheekbones, flawless skin, and contoured features. Consequently, influencers and media outlets have set this look as a global standard, often using heavy makeup, filters, or injectables to achieve it.
• Constant Comparison: Social media platforms constantly expose women to images of seemingly perfect peers and influencers. This exposure fuels a relentless cycle of comparison and self-criticism within these digital “communities.”

Appearance can become a dominating factor in a society. Especially for women may feel less valued for their traditional community roles or face ongoing pressures in professional spheres. Sometimes, people perceive it as their only source of power and validation.

This drives the relentless pursuit of an external “aesthetic” as a means to gain social acceptance, belonging, and self-worth, even at the cost of genuine well-being.

The Deeper Cost of Ranking Over Connection

Ultimately, the insights from Dunbar and Gilbert converge to highlight a critical modern dilemma. Our evolutionary need for connection and belonging runs deep. Today’s culture challenges that need by prioritising individualism and external validation.

Modern culture, and especially advertising, often operates by subtly (or overtly) driving an increased reliance on social ranking and fleeting forms of self-esteem. It promises confidence and empowerment through achieving an idealised external image, rather than through genuine connection and authentic self-acceptance.

This focus on outward appearance for social ranking comes at the crucial expense of self-worth derived from true connection. When our deeply ingrained need for belonging within our Dunbar layers is unmet, we become vulnerable to external pressures to “perform” attractiveness. We chase an elusive sense of value through our bodies, are increasingly vulnerable to shame, self-criticism as well as unrelenting standards, leaving our deeper need for authentic connection and the soothing it provides unfulfilled. This keeps our threat system activated and perpetuates the cycle of body dissatisfaction.

Rebuilding Connection: A Path Forward

The rise in body image issues isn’t just a personal failing. It’s a societal challenge with its roots stemming from a mismatch between our evolutionary needs and modern life. Our brains evolved for small, close-knit groups. In fact, genuine connection and mutual support once shaped our identity. Today, those foundations are harder to find.

Nowadays, they struggle to cope with the vast, often superficial, social landscape of today. Consequently, this leads leading to increased pressure and distress surrounding personal appearance.

At The Body Image Treatment Clinic, we understand this complex interplay. In fact, since Covid, we’ve been developing a digital treatment package specifically designed to target the aforementioned issues. Our self-help or guided Self-help programme, “Beyond the Surface: A Compassion-Focused CBT Approach to Overcoming Body Image Struggles,” doesn’t just support by developing individual coping strategies. It also helps cultivate robust self-worth and emotional resilience through compassion-based skills work. This guides clients through increasing steps to overcome the key factors that generate and maintain body image issues. Crucially, it empowers them to challenge societal ideals and re-establish authentic connections in their lives.

Ultimately, if you or someone you know are struggling with body image, remember that you’re not alone, and there’s a deeper story behind your struggle. We are here to help you navigate it.

References:

• Dunbar, R. I. M. (1992). Neocortex size as a constraint on group size in primates. Journal of Human Evolution, 22(5), 469-493.
• Dunbar, R. I. M. (1998). Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language. Harvard University Press.
• Gilbert, P. (2009). The compassionate mind: A new approach to the challenges of life. Constable & Robinson.
• Gilbert, P. (2014). Compassion focused therapy: Distinctive features. Routledge.

 

Thomas Midgley BSc, RD, PGDip, CBT.

CBT & Compassion Focused Psychotherapist,

Highly specialised eating disorders dietitian, Company Director.